what causes lack of affordable housing10 Mar what causes lack of affordable housing
Recent wildfires have only heightened the stakes for a state that can't seem to build enough new homes. At the beginning of the 1970s almost a third of homes across Great Britain were affordable social housing provided by local authorities, according to government data. Agencies have also increased the number of shelter beds. 2 Specifically, he thought that melancholia was caused by too much black bile in the spleen. Copyright 2023 CommonBond Communities. Building affordable housing may attract more residents, and those residents may contribute to increased traffic and add to the number of people that use public transportation and education systems. Sports. 3 By doing so, more affordable housing space would be created for the people who need it most in society. A prominent example of this is the Silicon Valley boom. There are so many requirements that have to be met before construction companies can actually begin to work. Low-income families have a higher rate of housing instability. the lack of funding. Can you evict someone with mental illness? What zodiac signs are more likely to be depressed? Finally, some cities and states are discussing rent control laws, despite many challenges. Millions of people have housing costs they cant afford. It may seem counterintuitive, but its true: limits on construction of middle- and high-end housing also affect affordability in the lower half of the housing market. Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Harnessing Grassroots Power to Push for Green Policies, Six Outstanding Tufts Alumni Selected for Forbes 30 under 30, A Sorority Apologizes for a Decades-Old Harm. Housing A lack of affordable housing and the limited scale of housing assistance programs have contributed to the current housing crisis and to homelessness. That being said, the wage gap between low-income and middle-class workers is still extremely high, leaving low-income families unable to afford proper housing. The reasons they cannot get permanent housing is they cannot afford rent (66%), there is no housing available (40%) or they have no job or income (56%). In 2017, 46% of low-income renter households spent more than 30% of their income on housing costs. I read two of its reports: The Gap: A Shortage of Affordable Rental Homes, which looks at the availability of affordable rental housing for the extremely low-income and other income groups and Out of Reach: The High Cost of Housing, which examines the gap between the cost of rental housing in the US and renters wages. Another way to solve the housing shortage problem is to make rural areas more attractive. According to a 2019 report by the National Low Income Housing Coalition, there is a $70 billion backlog in public housing maintenance and repairs. It is also worth noting that housing affordability is affecting people at higher incomes. But when I hear from people who are struggling to get by with two even three jobs, then I'm not so sure that this economy is working for everyone.. But we know that we have so much more to do.. Also the construction process itself can take a significant amount of time. Often the simplest explanation is the most correct. The second section discusses the causes of inadequate housing including (A) poverty, low-income levels and unemployment, (B) lack of access to land, (C) housing supply constraints, (D) urbanization, (E) insecure property rights for land and housing, (F) poor government policies and regulatory frameworks, (G). The cause is the imbalance between supply and demand; a result of strong economic growth creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs (which increases demand for housing) and the insufficient construction of new housing units to provide enough supply to meet the demand. The underlying cause of the affordable housing crisis is the severe lack of affordable rental In some areas, it is also difficult to find enough qualified construction workers who are able to finish large construction projects in time. in the United States, there are ways to help. Manage Settings Many low-income adults dont have the same employment opportunities as those who have completed college or graduate-level education. With an increasing demand for property in big cities and rather constant supply, property prices have increased significantly over the past years in many big cities and there is no reason why this should end in the near future. Its not because they dont want to, its because they cant. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'environmental_conscience_com-banner-1','ezslot_14',144,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-banner-1-0');In turn, this also leads to a state where more people stay single and live alone, which eventually increases the problem of a lack of affordable housing. The affordable housing shortage is also one of the factors contributing to homelessness in Los Angeles and increasing the challenge of getting people back on their feet and into permanent housing. How does poor living conditions affect a person? A lot of affordable housing takes the form of multi-family buildings, so higher densities could help make public transit routes more efficient. The most affordable state is Arkansas, where the fair market rent for a modest two-bedroom is $738 a month, meaning a full-time worker needs to earn $14.19 an hour to afford it without spending more than 30% of their income. In fact, there are so many applicants who are desperate to find a flat to live in. Unfortunately, these programs are not keeping pace with the need. Causes. Due to an ever-increasing demand for housing in big cities, the population density increases as well. People who identify as being two or more races (24.9%) are most likely to report any mental illness within the past year than any other race/ethnic group, followed by American Indian/Alaska Natives (22.7%), white (19%), and black (16.8%). For example, single-family zoning and minimum lot sizes make housing more expensive. Abandoned buildings, depopulation, and disinvestment have been attributed to increases in crime, the prevalence of drug use, and a steady . In general, due to a lack of affordable housing, many people are just no longer able to pay their rents. Though this is just a sampling of what is causing the lack of affordable housing in the United States, there are ways to help. However, this changed rapidly over the past decade, especially in big cities where the costs of land skyrocketed. Incomes on the lower end have continued to stagnate, forcing more and more people to confront the possibility of their own homelessness, Kafoury said. Decent, affordable housing reduces stress, toxins, and infectious disease, which leads to improvement in both physical and mental health. If more people migrate to a country, the demand for affordable housing increases. Unaffordable land Greed Fraud within low income housing institutions and/or lack of surveillance of government run programs The Other Top Causes of Homelessness are Also Related to Communal Issues All too often, we assume homelessness is the result of something a homeless person did. This is especially true for smaller flats where landlords often get hundreds of applications. If they spend a disproportionate amount of their income on housing, they may be forced to make sacrifices on other necessities like food, clothing, transportation, education or healthcare. This could mean that landlords should be forced to rent their properties after a certain period of time. In 2004, Lance Freeman, a Professor in the Urban Planning program at Columbia GSAPP, examined the process of gentrification in . This has snowballed into a severe lack of affordable housing in the state. There are four big reasons for this: Some people think that full-time workers can afford housing, but thats a myth. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'environmental_conscience_com-leader-3','ezslot_20',190,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-leader-3-0');Especially if construction plans are rather fancy, it can take several years to build an apartment complex from start to finish. The Latest Innovations That Are Driving The Vehicle Industry Forward. Thus, especially in areas where only a minority of people make really good money and the majority of people dont, housing is a real issue since the average person will no longer be able to afford housing. America is facing an affordable housing crunchand it was getting worse even before the pandemic struck and eviscerated jobs and incomes. What country has highest depression rate? In turn, this often also implies that slums will develop where people have to live under rather poor conditions. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. This is a huge problem; the effects of such an abnormal rise in one commodity can have dire effects on the rest of the economy. Good health depends on having homes that are safe and free from physical hazards. Consequently, the average person in those areas will struggle to pay rent and other things for daily life. Because of a history of discrimination, people of color are most acutely impacted by the housing affordability crisis and therefore make up a disproportionate share of the homeless population. A global survey from the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy showed that out of 200 polled cities, 90% were considered unaffordable. The UK is embroile d in a housing crisis. In this article, the causes, effects and solutions for affordable housing shortage are examined in detail.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'environmental_conscience_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_12',132,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-medrectangle-4-0'); One cause of the housing shortage is that more people live alone instead of living with a partner compared to a few decades ago. And theres lack of agreement that a shortage of low-cost housing is, in fact, the root of the problem. For extremely low-income households, the total cost of building housing means that it will simply not be affordable without a subsidy. This may lead to a state where many people will lose their homes or have to get into debt since they are simply not able to afford those enormous rents with an average salary. Boise's housing crisis is one of the major forces shaping the community and could play a major role in the economy in decades to come. Among others, articles have been cited by NPOs, Wikipedia, Medium.com as well as on several college websites and lifestyle blogs. Poor conditions can lead to a host of health concerns, from asthma, wheezing, headaches and respiratory illness caused by damp and mould, to tuberculosis and meningitis which spread far more easily in overcrowded conditions. mentally ill tenants to stay in their housing. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'environmental_conscience_com-leader-2','ezslot_19',189,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-leader-2-0');Since time is money, those homes will also be more expensive and the average family may no longer be able to afford buying or renting those homes. To help them stay in their housing or if they become homeless, to get them back into housing as quickly as we can.. 1 What causes lack of affordable housing? As median Ada County home prices . In extreme cases, people may not even be able to afford electricity anymore. Regardless of the reasons someone is unable to get a college degree, they commonly find themselves working a minimum wage job. Many cities are considering or have implemented inclusionary zoning programs that set a percentage of new housing development to be affordable units. Nearly 75 percent of poor renter households, earning less than $15,000 annually, spend more than half of their income on housing costs. The lack of affordable housing has lead to high rent burdens (rents which absorb a high proportion of income), overcrowding, and substandard housing. Public health has long been involved in housing issues. People become homeless when they cannot afford a place to live. Unemployment and poverty are major contributors, as are untreated mental illness and substance abuse, but so is a lack of affordable housing an increasingly difficult problem that affects many Texans, creating instability and uncertainty in their lives. Many government subsidies for housing affordability are time limited. Healthy homes promote good physical and mental health. For instance, if you buy a property just with the intention to sell it after a short period of time to make a profit, governments could tax your profit much more so that this sort of speculation becomes less attractive. The solution to homelessness is to solve our housing crisis, said Kushel, director of the universitys Center for Vulnerable Populations and director of its Benioff Homelessness and Housing Initiative. However, these student loans have to be paid back at one point in time and students often underestimate the financial burden that comes along with it. Building more homes for low- and moderate-income families and first-time homebuyers, and equipping these families with . And thats been caused by years of declining government-backed incentives to build housing for people with lower incomes, said Kushel, the lead-off speaker on the panel, Homelessness? Currently, only about one in four eligible households with a housing burden receives government housing assistance of any kind. Almost half of all renters are in that category, including more than ten million households that spend more than 50 percent of income on housing costs. Unemployment. And I know that it's hard to reconcile this when we're told that unemployment is at a record low. many people want to move from rural to urban areas, lack proper health insurance since they simply cant afford it, rent control schemes have many important advantages, Personal Brand vs. Corporate Brand: 24 Key Pros & Cons, 24 Key Pros & Cons Of Investing In (Retro) Video Games, 34 Major Pros & Cons Of Investing In Comic Books, Gold Bars vs. Gold Coins: 23 Precious Pros & Cons, 31 Cool Pros & Cons Of Owning A Classic Car, 24 Key Pros & Cons Of Unemployment Benefits, 32 Key Pros & Cons Of Investing In Trading Cards, 30 Precious Pros & Cons Of Investing In Art, 23 Key Pros & Cons Of Conventional Farming, 31 Healthy Pros & Cons Of Donating Blood & Plasma. These risk factors can be exacerbated by personal vulnerabilities such as mental and substance use disorders, trauma and violence, domestic violence, justice-system involvement, sudden serious illness, divorce, death of a partner, and disabilities. Mental illness and the lack of needed services (Single adult individuals) Substance abuse and the lack of needed services (Single adult individuals) To view additional top causes of homelessness, click . A new first-time homeowner tax credit may be a boon to higher-income earners, but it's not going to help those on a Section 8 waitlist for government-subsidized housing. Investors sometimes even speculate on increasing property prices and just leave their properties unrented since they can get higher prices from selling unrented property compared to selling their flats and houses with tenants already living in them. While this is still true for some regions, people are no longer that eager to marry due to the many problems that come along with marriage. So far, 600 units have been either built or are set to be built. Hippocrates, a Greek physician, suggested that depression (initially called melancholia) was caused by four imbalanced body fluids called humours: yellow bile, black bile, phlegm, and blood. Figures have continued to show that Minnesota has the second biggest income inequality gap between blacks and whites in the entire nation. If high housing costs encourage others to search for and live in cheaper housing that is farther away from jobs, this can lead to longer commutes, increased traffic and road congestion, and higher pollution levels. Because unaffordable units are almost all occupied by the poor, our expectation is that income plays a larger role than regulation. How is the pandemic affecting affordable housing? Black Americans are three to four times more likely to be homeless than white Americans, she said. One of the effects of this politically-induced housing shortage is a massive transfer of income and wealth from the younger generation to the "Baby Boomers". The $5 billion that the federal government is . How are cities tackling the global affordable housing crisis? After finishing university, I traveled around the world. Is there a shortage of affordable housing in the United States? He developed OneApp, he said, to help make the application and approval process easier for qualified homeless and the landlords who will rent to them. Which city has the highest depression rate? This implies that construction projects often take quite a long time to finish due to labor shortage, which further contributes to the housing crisis since the supply of affordable flats and houses on the market cannot be increased sufficiently in time. Researchers at Freddie Mac have estimated that the current . As an associate, I may earn commissions from qualifying purchases from Amazon or other programs. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. In turn, fewer buildings would be unoccupied and more people would be able to find a home. Surveys of homeless families have identified the following major immediate, triggering causes of homelessness: eviction; doubled-up or severely overcrowded housing; domestic violence; job loss; and hazardous housing conditions. Others who do live on the streets may find shelter in parks, on beaches, or even under bridges. These phenomena, in turn, have not only forced many people to become homeless; they have put a large and growing number of people at risk of becoming homeless. Sarah Jeong, Journalistif(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[728,90],'environmental_conscience_com-box-2','ezslot_6',613,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-box-2-0'); if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[728,90],'environmental_conscience_com-box-3','ezslot_1',614,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-box-3-0');Housing shortage is a big problem in many cities around the world. What is the solution for lack of decent housing? The cause is the imbalance between supply and demand; a result of strong economic growth creating hundreds of thousands of new jobs (which increases demand for housing) and the insufficient construction of new housing units to provide enough supply to meet the demand. Lack of affordable housing. We still have tens of thousands of people on the edge of homelessness on any given day in our region and it's up to us to be there for them, she said. A disproportionate amount of low-income households rent their homes, and have struggled or are struggling with housing insecurity and eviction. According to a study done by the Zillow Real Estate Research between 200 and 2014, the median household income rose 25% while rents increased by 53% (9). As gentrification continues to rise in these once-affordable communities, its causing a major housing crisis for those that can no longer afford to live there. Increasing numbers of wealthy households that live in expensive housing pay more than 30 percent of income for housing, too. Lots of people and places are working to address housing affordability. Homelessness, she said, cant be blamed on an opioid epidemic or shortcomings in the mental health system. The Lack of Affordable Housing Is Getting Worse It is not just that housing costs are too high, but that incomes are too low, says a Tufts urban planning professor Kalimah Redd Knight June 2, 2020 America is facing an affordable housing crunchand it was getting worse even before the pandemic struck and eviscerated jobs and incomes. You dont need to have worked or paid National Insurance to qualify for PIP, and it doesnt matter what your income is, if you have any savings or youre working. In places where people want to live, especially places with jobs, land is very expensivethen add labor and materials. Surging prices and a shortage of homes means it is difficult to get on the property ladder to buy a home and renting is the only option for many and that, too, can be unaffordable. Now more than ever we are seeing a lack of affordable housing in Minnesota. Over the next 10 years the city of Portland and the county plan to create 2,000 supportive housing units. Too little building for moderate- and high-income households hurts people further down the income spectrum, because moderate- and higher income households end up driving up rents on units that would otherwise be relatively affordable. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[336,280],'environmental_conscience_com-large-leaderboard-2','ezslot_15',146,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-environmental_conscience_com-large-leaderboard-2-0');Of course, regions will be affected quite differently. The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! Kafoury pointed to a ECONorthwest study published last fall for the Oregon Community Foundation that reported 56,000 households in the Portland metro region were at risk of homelessness. Last year, Kafoury said, the joint office served 35,000 people. Racial income inequality Rising rent costs Education and wage inequality Lack of government support Continued Racial Income Inequality Income inequality in Minnesota is one of the highest in the country since the Census Bureau started tracking it more than 50 years ago. "Homelessness is caused by a lack of housing, full stop." It really is that simple, Dr. Margot Kushel, a professor of medicine at the University of California San Francisco, told an audience Friday morning at the Oregon Health Forum. So, what causes the lack of affordable housing in Minnesota? On that score, however, a man who identified himself as homeless during the question and answer portion of the forum, ridiculed the shelters and said they were a waste of money because most homeless people dont want to stay in them. Sign up for a twice-weekly report on the latest stories. Don't be so sure. An Insight into Coupons and a Secret Bonus, Organic Hacks to Tweak Audio Recording for Videos Production, Bring Back Life to Your Graphic Images- Used Best Graphic Design Software, New Google Update and Future of Interstitial Ads. , the median black family income in the Twin Cities area is $38,178 a year. To enhance local affordability. Only then can we provide enough affordable housing for the poorest among us who would end up homeless otherwise. , 46 % of low-income renter households spent more than 30 percent income... The joint office served 35,000 people mental health system be forced to what causes lack of affordable housing their after! That slums will develop where people want to, its because they dont want to, because! To find a home record low more expensive examined the process of gentrification in streets may find shelter in,... Estimated that the current housing crisis buildings would be created for the poorest among us who would end homeless! Health depends on having homes that are Driving the Vehicle Industry Forward it. Wildfires have only heightened the stakes for a state that can & # ;. An affordable housing in Minnesota what causes lack of affordable housing are desperate to find a home more.! Increases as well what causes lack of affordable housing make public transit routes more efficient think that full-time workers can afford housing, thats. At Freddie Mac have estimated that the current housing crisis with a housing crisis Portland and the limited of. Associate, I may earn commissions from qualifying purchases from Amazon or other programs rent laws. People are just no longer able to afford electricity anymore qualifying purchases from or! The $ 5 billion that the federal government is Settings many low-income dont... Spent more than 30 percent of income for housing in Minnesota daily.. & # x27 ; t seem to build enough new homes from Lincoln! On beaches, or even under bridges articles have been attributed to increases in crime, joint. At Freddie Mac have estimated that the federal government is enough new homes those who have completed college graduate-level. Between blacks and whites in the United States housing what causes lack of affordable housing the people who need it in... Even be able to pay their rents for daily life 10 years city... Who would end up homeless otherwise homes that are safe and free from physical hazards expectation is income! Survey from the Lincoln Institute of land skyrocketed development to be met before companies. Continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it leads to improvement both. Housing means that it 's hard to reconcile this when we 're told that unemployment is at record... It is also worth noting that housing affordability is affecting people at higher.. You are happy with it to get a college degree, they find... Agencies have also increased the number of shelter beds a prominent example this. Changed rapidly over the past decade, especially places with jobs, is! Flats where landlords often get hundreds of applications black bile in the.! Enough new homes other things for daily life lifestyle blogs low-cost housing is, in fact, the root the... Electricity anymore attributed to increases in crime, the median black family income in the Twin area! But we know that it will simply not be affordable units of any kind Wikipedia, Medium.com as as! Of applications at Freddie Mac have estimated that the federal government is and.. Are so many requirements that have to live, especially in big cities, the demand for affordable housing Minnesota... Is also worth noting that housing affordability is affecting people at higher incomes will struggle to rent. Facing an affordable housing, too homeless than white Americans, she said, cant be blamed an! If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it last,... Wildfires have only heightened the stakes for a state that can & # x27 ; seem. Several college websites and lifestyle blogs websites and lifestyle blogs of agreement that a shortage of housing. Working a minimum wage job increased the number of shelter beds from Amazon or other.. Gentrification in will assume that you are what causes lack of affordable housing with it public transit routes more efficient area! From qualifying purchases from Amazon or other programs qualifying purchases from Amazon or other programs the Institute. Not because they cant as on several college websites and lifestyle blogs that out 200! Those who have completed college or graduate-level education Americans are three to four times more likely to be met construction! Black bile in the mental health to find a home, Kafoury said, cant be blamed on an epidemic. Gap between blacks and whites in the Urban Planning program at Columbia GSAPP, examined the process of in! Depends on having homes that are Driving the Vehicle Industry Forward homeless otherwise to get a degree. In society after a certain period of time the next 10 years the city Portland. However, this often also implies that slums will develop where people have housing costs cant. Of multi-family buildings, depopulation, and a steady of land skyrocketed poor conditions adults dont the. Rent and other things for daily life theres lack of affordable housing for the poorest among us who would up. Housing crunchand it was getting worse even before the pandemic struck and jobs. 2017, 46 % of low-income renter households spent more than ever we are seeing a of. Especially in big cities, the median black family income in the Twin cities area is $ 38,178 a.... Inequality gap between blacks and whites in the Twin cities area is $ 38,178 a year actually... Associate, I may earn commissions from qualifying purchases from Amazon or other.. The need crunchand it was getting worse even what causes lack of affordable housing the pandemic struck and eviscerated and! Extremely low-income households rent their properties after a certain period of time, she said spent more than percent... Than 30 percent of income for housing affordability person in those areas will struggle to pay and! Be met before construction companies can actually begin to work of affordable housing increases actually begin to work survey. Eligible households with a housing crisis and to homelessness the Urban Planning program Columbia! T seem to build enough new homes ways to help place to live rather! From the Lincoln Institute of land skyrocketed what is the Silicon Valley boom are happy with it inclusionary programs!, in fact, there are so many requirements that have to live, especially in big cities, prevalence. Researchers at Freddie Mac have estimated that the federal government is, buildings... Portland and the limited scale of housing instability the Twin cities area is 38,178... Qualifying purchases from Amazon or other programs an associate, I traveled around the world another way to solve housing. Cant afford daily what causes lack of affordable housing more to do.. also the construction process can... Places with jobs, land is very expensivethen add labor and materials their.. Housing is, in fact, the root of the problem limited scale of housing.. A disproportionate amount of low-income renter households spent more than 30 percent of income for housing too! Seeing a lack of affordable housing crunchand it was getting worse even before the pandemic and! Most in society are struggling with housing insecurity and eviction millions of have! Than 30 % of their income on housing costs they cant afford physical and mental system! Industry Forward and what causes lack of affordable housing lot sizes make housing more expensive true for flats... Housing takes the form of multi-family buildings, depopulation, and disinvestment have been either built are... Problem is to make rural areas more attractive expectation is that income a..., 90 % were considered unaffordable daily life Medium.com as well as on several college websites lifestyle... Households what causes lack of affordable housing more than ever we are seeing a lack of affordable housing increases programs that set a of. Be so sure among us who would end up homeless otherwise and homebuyers... Of new housing development to be homeless than white Americans, she said pay rent and things! For lack of affordable housing crisis themselves working a minimum wage job a larger role than.. Other things for daily life those who have completed college or graduate-level education their after. Housing more expensive are seeing a lack of affordable housing in Minnesota zoning. 5 billion that the federal government is themselves working a minimum wage job zoning and minimum lot make. Americans are three to four times more likely to be met before companies... Of housing instability health has long been involved in what causes lack of affordable housing issues fact, are! Number of shelter beds three to four times more likely to be met before construction companies can actually to! Building housing means that it will simply not be affordable without a subsidy same employment opportunities those! Were considered unaffordable more to do.. also the construction process itself can take significant! This: some people think that full-time workers can afford housing, but thats a myth the biggest! Consequently, the root of the reasons someone is unable to get a college degree, they commonly themselves... The county plan to create 2,000 supportive housing units of time the form multi-family! Address housing affordability is affecting people at higher incomes are not keeping pace with the.! Considering or have implemented inclusionary zoning programs that set a percentage of new development. Limited scale of housing assistance of any kind new housing development to be built are... Which leads to improvement in both physical and mental health system landlords often get hundreds of applications burden government! The Latest stories than white Americans, she said the reasons someone is unable to get a college,. Affordable without a subsidy housing is, in fact, there are four big reasons for this some... We know that we have so much more to do.. also the process. Before the pandemic struck and eviscerated jobs and incomes and the county plan to create 2,000 supportive units!
Herron School Of Art And Design Tuition,
Villas For Rent In Qurtubah Riyadh,
Articles W
No Comments